The livestock sector is an integral component of Bangladesh’s agricultural economy, significantly contributing to food security, rural livelihoods, employment generation, and poverty reduction (Datta et al., 2024). Cattle and goats, the primary livestock species, are reared by smallholder farmers and provide milk, meat, manure, hides, skins, and draft power. Beyond their economic contributions, these animals serve as crucial household assets and sources of financial security for rural communities (Sobur et al., 2025a; Banda and Tanganyika, 2021). The livestock subsector plays a vital role in the national economy and ensures sustainable agricultural development (Moller et al., 2023).
Despite continuous growth in the livestock sector, diseases remain a major constraint to improving animal productivity. Both infectious and non-infectious diseases reduce production efficiency through decreased milk yield, poor growth, reproductive disorders, increased treatment costs, and mortality, leading to significant economic losses (Salauddin et al., 2025). Furthermore, several livestock diseases, including anthrax, brucellosis, rabies, and salmonellosis, are zoonotic and pose substantial public health concerns within the One Health framework (Sobur et al., 2025b; Shaheen, 2022).
The prevalence of livestock diseases in Bangladesh is influenced by favorable climatic conditions such as high temperatures, humidity, seasonal rainfall, and flooding, which facilitate the survival and transmission of numerous bacterial, viral, and parasitic pathogens (Ali et al., 2020). Poor housing, inadequate nutrition, insufficient biosecurity, unrestricted animal movement, and limited vaccination coverage further increase disease susceptibility among cattle and goats (Ahmed et al., 2025; Salauddin et al., 2025).
Among infectious diseases, bacterial infections like colibacillosis, mastitis, pneumonia, hemorrhagic septicemia, abscesses, and tetanus are frequently encountered in veterinary practice and cause substantial production losses. Similarly, viral diseases, including foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), peste des petits ruminants (PPR), lumpy skin disease (LSD), and rabies, continue to affect livestock production despite ongoing vaccination efforts (Robi et al., 2024; Sobur et al., 2024; Pal et al., 2024). Additionally, non-infectious disorders such as digestive diseases, reproductive disorders, metabolic diseases, nutritional deficiencies, poisoning, and traumatic injuries also contribute significantly to livestock morbidity and reduced productivity (Kang et al., 2025).
Understanding disease occurrence and distribution is essential for developing effective prevention and control strategies (Hu et al., 2025). Retrospective analysis of veterinary hospital records provides valuable epidemiological information on disease frequency and distribution by species, age, sex, season, and geographical location. Such information assists veterinarians and policymakers in identifying priority diseases, strengthening surveillance systems, improving resource allocation, and planning evidence-based disease control programs (Dinbiso et al., 2025).
Retrospective and epidemiological studies have consistently documented the occurrence and distribution of clinical diseases affecting cattle and goats across various regions of Bangladesh. These investigations identified digestive, respiratory, bacterial, viral, and parasitic diseases as the predominant health problems, though their prevalence varies with geographical location, climatic conditions, husbandry systems, and management practices. Recent studies have further highlighted the emergence of transboundary and economically important diseases, such as LSD in cattle and PPR in goats, underscoring the dynamic nature of livestock disease epidemiology in Bangladesh. These regional and temporal variations emphasize the need for area-specific epidemiological investigations to support effective disease surveillance, prevention, and control strategies (Hossain et al., 2023; Sultana et al., 2022; Uddin et al., 2022; Rahman et al., 2020).
Therefore, this retrospective study investigated the occurrence and distribution of clinical diseases among cattle and goats presented to the Upazila Veterinary Hospital, Uzirpur, Barishal, Bangladesh. Specific objectives included determining the occurrence of major bacterial, viral, parasitic, and other clinical diseases; evaluating disease occurrence species, age, and sex; and identifying the predominant clinical conditions affecting livestock in the study area. The findings are expected to provide baseline epidemiological information to support disease surveillance, prevention, and control strategies for improving livestock health and productivity in southern Bangladesh.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Ethical approval statement
No ethical approval was required to conduct the study.
2.2 Study area
The study was conducted at the Upazila Veterinary Hospital in Uzirpur Upazila, Barishal district, southern Bangladesh (Figure 1). This hospital is the primary government veterinary healthcare facility for cattle, goats, and other livestock in the surrounding rural communities.
Figure 1. Map of the study area.
2.3 Study design and duration
A retrospective observational study was conducted using clinical case records maintained at the Upazila Veterinary Hospital, encompassing cases recorded between 1 July 2017 and 29 August 2019.
2.4 Study population
The study population comprised all cattle and goats presented to the veterinary hospital during the study period. A total of 2,908 clinical cases were included, consisting of 1,563 cattle and 1,345 goats. Clinical records of other animal species were excluded from this analysis.
2.5 Data collection
Clinical information was extracted from the official hospital disease register maintained by the veterinary hospital. For each case, the animal’s species, age, sex, owner complaint, clinical history, tentative diagnosis, and disease category were collected. Data were carefully reviewed to eliminate duplicate or incomplete records before analysis.
2.6 Clinical diagnosis
Diagnosis of individual clinical cases was established by attending veterinarians based on case history, owner complaints, physical examination, clinical findings, and routine diagnostic procedures practiced at the veterinary hospital. Physical examination included inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation, gait evaluation, limb manipulation, and needle aspiration, where appropriate. Specific diseases were diagnosed according to standard veterinary clinical criteria. Pneumonia was diagnosed based on respiratory signs including coughing, dyspnea, tachypnea, abnormal lung sounds, and fever. FMD was identified by characteristic fever, oral and pedal vesicles, erosive lesions, salivation, and rapid herd spread. Tetanus was diagnosed from classical clinical manifestations including generalized muscle rigidity, lockjaw, protrusion of the third eyelid, hyperesthesia, and tonic muscular spasms. Abscesses were confirmed through clinical palpation and needle aspiration.
2.7 Disease classification
Clinical cases were classified into three major disease categories: bacterial diseases, viral diseases, and other clinical conditions. The bacterial disease category included colibacillosis, pneumonia, mastitis, abscess, and tetanus, while the viral disease category comprised FMD, rabies, and PPR. The category of other clinical conditions included parasitic infestations, anorexia, non-specific diarrhea, accidental injuries, surgical conditions, bloat, anestrus, non-specific fever, conception failure, castration, and dog bite injuries. In addition, animals were categorized by age and sex for epidemiological analysis. Cattle were classified as young (<1 year) or adult (≥1 year), while goats were categorized as young (<6 months) or adult (≥6 months).
2.8 Statistical analysis
Data were entered into Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA, USA) for organization and validation. Descriptive statistical analyses were performed to calculate the frequencies and percentages of disease occurrence according to species, disease category, age, and sex. Results are presented using tables and graphical summaries.
3. Results
3.1 Overall occurrence of clinical diseases
A total of 2,908 clinical cases (1,563 cattle and 1,345 goats) were included in this retrospective study. Diseases were categorized as bacterial, viral, or other clinical conditions. Among cattle, bacterial diseases accounted for 17.47% (273/1,563) of all recorded cases, viral diseases for 3.52% (55/1,563), and other clinical conditions for 79.01% (1,235/1,563). In contrast, goats showed a comparatively higher occurrence of bacterial (31.23%; 420/1,345) and viral diseases (12.34%; 166/1,345), while other diseases accounted for 56.43% (759/1,345) of cases (Table 1).
Table 1. Overall occurrence of clinical disease categories in cattle and goats presented to the Upazila Veterinary Hospital, Uzirpur, Bangladesh.
| Species | Total cases (n) | Bacterial diseases n (%) | Viral diseases n (%) | Other diseases n (%) |
| Cattle | 1,563 | 273 (17.47) | 55 (3.52) | 1235 (79.01) |
| Goat | 1,345 | 420 (31.23) | 166 (12.34) | 759 (56.43) |
3.2 Occurrence of bacterial diseases
During the study period, five major bacterial diseases were identified (Table 2). In cattle, colibacillosis was the predominant bacterial disease, representing 34.43% of bacterial cases, followed by pneumonia (26.75%), abscess (25.27%), and mastitis (13.55%). No cases of tetanus were recorded in cattle. In goats, pneumonia was the most frequently diagnosed bacterial disease, accounting for 44.52% of bacterial infections, followed by tetanus (31.67%), colibacillosis (10.95%), mastitis (7.38%), and abscess (5.48%).
Table 2. Distribution of major bacterial and viral diseases in cattle and goats.
| Disease category | Disease | Cattle, n (%) | Goats, n (%) |
| Bacterial diseases | Colibacillosis | 94 (34.43) | 46 (10.95) |
| Mastitis | 37 (13.55) | 31 (7.38) | |
| Pneumonia | 73 (26.75) | 187 (44.52) | |
| Abscess | 69 (25.27) | 23 (5.48) | |
| Tetanus | 0 (0.00) | 133 (31.67) | |
| Total bacterial cases | 273 | 420 | |
|
Viral diseases |
FMD | 44 (80.00) | 0 (0.00) |
| Rabies | 11 (20.00) | 19 (11.45) | |
| PPR | 0 (0.00) | 147 (88.55) | |
| Total viral cases | 55 | 166 |
3.3 Occurrence of viral diseases
Among cattle, FMD was the predominant viral disease, accounting for 80.00% of all viral infections, while rabies represented the remaining 20.00%. No cases of PPR were observed in cattle. In goats, PPR was overwhelmingly the most common viral disease (88.55%), whereas rabies accounted for only 11.45% of viral cases. No clinical cases of FMD were recorded in goats during the study period (Table 3).
Table 3. Major non-infectious and miscellaneous clinical conditions recorded in cattle and goats.
| Disease | Cattle n (%) | Goat n (%) |
| Parasitic infestation | 648 (52.47) | 272 (35.84) |
| Non-specific fever | 151 (12.23) | 119 (15.68) |
| Anorexia | 113 (9.15) | 97 (12.78) |
| Bloat/Tympany | 97 (7.86) | 62 (8.17) |
| Non-specific diarrhoea | 96 (7.77) | 13 (1.71) |
| Anoestrus | 58 (4.70) | 19 (2.50) |
| Conception failure | 34 (2.75) | 5 (0.66) |
| Surgical conditions | 12 (0.97) | 27 (3.56) |
| Accidental injury | 17 (1.37) | 23 (3.03) |
| Dog bite | 9 (0.73) | 43 (5.67) |
| Castration | — | 79 (10.41) |
3.4 Occurrence of other clinical diseases
Other clinical conditions represented the largest disease category in both animal species. Parasitic infestation was the most prevalent condition, accounting for 52.47% of other diseases in cattle and 35.84% in goats. Among cattle, other recorded conditions included non-specific fever (12.23%), anorexia (9.15%), bloat (7.86%), non-specific diarrhea (7.77%), anoestrus (4.70%), conception failure (2.75%), accidental injury (1.37%), surgical conditions (0.97%), and dog bite (0.73%). In goats, observed conditions included non-specific fever (15.68%), anorexia (12.78%), castration (10.41%), bloat (8.17%), dog bite (5.67%), surgical conditions (3.56%), accidental injury (3.03%), anoestrus (2.50%), and non-specific diarrhea (1.71%) (Table 4).
Table 4. Age- and sex-wise occurrence (%) of major disease categories.
| Species | Variable | Bacterial diseases (%) | Viral diseases (%) | Other diseases (%) |
|
Cattle |
Young (<1 year) | 23.39 | 2.80 | 73.81 |
| Adult (≥1 year) | 12.49 | 4.12 | 83.39 | |
| Male | 11.61 | 3.17 | 85.22 | |
| Female | 22.98 | 3.85 | 73.17 | |
|
Goat |
Young (<6 months) | 41.69 | 11.76 | 46.55 |
| Adult (≥6 months) | 21.78 | 12.87 | 63.35 | |
| Male | 35.06 | 12.08 | 52.86 | |
| Female | 26.09 | 12.70 | 61.22 |
3.5 Age-wise occurrence of diseases
Age-specific analysis demonstrated clear differences in disease occurrence between young and adult animals. In cattle, bacterial diseases were more common among calves younger than one year (23.39%) than adults (12.49%). In contrast, viral diseases occurred slightly more frequently in adult cattle (4.12%) than young cattle (2.80%). Other diseases predominated in adult cattle (83.39%). Similarly, young goats (under 6 months) exhibited a higher occurrence of bacterial diseases (41.69%) than adults (21.78%). Viral diseases were slightly more frequent among adult goats (12.87%) than young goats (11.76%). Other clinical conditions represented 63.35% of diseases in adult goats compared with 46.55% in young goats.
3.6 Sex-wise occurrence of diseases
Sex-related variations were also observed. Among cattle, females exhibited a higher occurrence of bacterial (22.98%) and viral diseases (3.85%) than males (11.61% and 3.17%, respectively). However, other diseases were more prevalent among males (85.22%) than females (73.17%). Conversely, male goats demonstrated a greater occurrence of bacterial diseases (35.06%) than females (26.09%). Viral diseases, however, were similarly distributed between males (12.08%) and females (12.70%). Other diseases accounted for 61.22% of female goat cases and 52.86% of male goat cases.
4. Discussion
This retrospective study provides comprehensive information regarding the occurrence and distribution of clinical diseases affecting cattle and goats presented to the Upazila Veterinary Hospital, Uzirpur, Barishal. The findings indicate that infectious diseases continue to pose a considerable challenge to livestock production, while parasitic infestations remain the most prevalent clinical conditions in both animal species. This is consistent with recent hospital-based epidemiological investigations conducted in Bangladesh (Datta et al., 2024; Hossain et al., 2023; Rahman et al., 2022).
The predominance of parasitic diseases observed in both cattle (52.47%) and goats (35.84%) reflects the endemic nature of gastrointestinal and ectoparasitic infections in tropical production systems. High environmental humidity, prolonged grazing on contaminated pasture, inadequate deworming practices, and poor sanitation likely contributed to this high disease burden. Similar observations have been reported from several regions of Bangladesh, where parasitic infestation consistently represents the leading cause of clinical presentation in ruminants (Sobur et al., 2024; Hossain et al., 2023).
Among bacterial diseases, colibacillosis was the most common diagnosis in cattle. The predominance of this disease in calves aligns with the well-established susceptibility of neonatal animals due to inadequate colostral immunity, immature immune responses, and poor hygienic management during the neonatal period. Previous studies conducted in Bangladesh likewise identified neonatal colibacillosis as a major cause of morbidity among calves (Haque et al., 2022; Mohammed et al., 2019). Pneumonia was the leading bacterial disease in goats and the second most common bacterial disease in cattle. Young animals were more frequently affected than adults, consistent with recent epidemiological investigations (Hossain et al., 2023; Rahman et al., 2022). Respiratory infections are favored by environmental stressors including overcrowding, sudden climatic fluctuations, transportation stress, poor ventilation, and concurrent parasitic infections, which collectively impair pulmonary defense mechanisms (Ackermann et al., 2010).
Clinical mastitis occurred exclusively in adult females of both species, reflecting the physiological susceptibility of lactating animals. Although the prevalence observed in this study was relatively moderate, mastitis remains economically important because of reductions in milk yield, treatment costs, and premature culling. Improvement of milking hygiene and early detection programs could substantially reduce disease occurrence (Ruegg, 2017). Tetanus was recorded only in goats, particularly among young male animals. This finding may be associated with traditional management practices, including field castration performed under suboptimal hygienic conditions, allowing contamination of wounds by Clostridium tetani. Similar observations have been reported in goat production systems in Bangladesh and other South Asian countries (Rahman et al., 2022). FMD constituted the majority of viral infections in cattle. Despite nationwide vaccination programs, sporadic outbreaks continue to occur because of incomplete vaccination coverage, unrestricted animal movement, and continual circulation of multiple viral serotypes. Regular vaccination together with movement control remains essential for disease prevention (Robi et al., 2024; Naghi et al., 2023).
In goats, PPR accounted for nearly 89% of viral diseases, confirming its continued importance as one of the most devastating infectious diseases of small ruminants in Bangladesh. Although mass vaccination campaigns have reduced disease incidence in many regions, inadequate vaccine coverage and seasonal transmission continue to facilitate outbreaks (Sobur et al., 2024; Sultana et al., 2022).
Age-related analysis demonstrated that bacterial diseases predominated among younger animals, whereas adult animals exhibited higher frequencies of chronic, reproductive, parasitic, and metabolic disorders. Younger animals possess immature immune systems, making them more susceptible to enteric and respiratory pathogens. Adult animals experience prolonged environmental exposure and physiological stresses associated with pregnancy, lactation, reproduction, and production, predisposing them to a wider range of clinical disorders (Akter et al., 2024).
Sex-related differences observed in this study may largely reflect management practices rather than inherent biological susceptibility. Female cattle are generally retained longer for breeding and milk production, increasing their cumulative exposure to infectious and reproductive diseases. Conversely, male goats are commonly reared under semi-intensive systems and frequently subjected to castration, transportation, and marketing stress, factors that may increase their vulnerability to bacterial infections (Hossain et al., 2023; Rahman et al., 2022).
Overall, the disease pattern observed in the present investigation is broadly consistent with previous reports from other veterinary hospitals in Bangladesh. However, differences in disease frequencies likely reflect regional climatic conditions, management systems, vaccination status, and healthcare accessibility (Datta et al., 2024; Sobur et al., 2024; Hossain et al., 2023). These findings emphasize the necessity for region-specific disease surveillance, routine deworming, strategic vaccination, farmer education, and improved herd health management to reduce disease occurrence and improve livestock productivity in southern Bangladesh.
5. Conclusions
This retrospective study identified the major clinical diseases affecting cattle and goats presented to the Upazila Veterinary Hospital, Uzirpur, Barishal, Bangladesh. Parasitic infestations were the most common clinical conditions in both species. Among bacterial diseases, colibacillosis predominated in cattle, whereas pneumonia and tetanus were the major bacterial diseases in goats. FMD was the most prevalent viral disease in cattle, while PPR predominated in goats. Disease occurrence varied by age and sex, with young animals more susceptible to bacterial infections and adults more frequently affected by reproductive and other chronic disorders. The findings highlight the need to strengthen routine disease surveillance, strategic deworming, farm biosecurity, and vaccination programs against FMD and PPR to reduce disease burden and improve livestock productivity. Further studies incorporating laboratory confirmation and risk factor analysis across different regions are recommended to support evidence-based disease prevention and control strategies in Bangladesh.
